Category: Data privacy

Certified Information Privacy Professional (CIPP/E)

After s some time practicing as both in-house and outside counsel, and preparation, I am honored to get “Certified Information Privacy Professional/Europe“, in short “CIPP/E” by the IAPP – the International Association of Privacy Professionals.

This certification is a validation of my skills, therefore joining the ever growing family of professionals in this fascinating area. According to the IAPP, this certifcation shows “comprehensive GDPR knowledge, perspective and understanding to ensure compliance and data protection success in Europe“.

Therefore, I will keep on writing and discussing about advanced technologies and health, but also with a focus on privacy matters whether relating to companies or data subjects. Privacy, data protection and information security has become a specialized and key are for any lawyer, solicitor, attorney-at-law, whether working as outside counsel or in-house lawyer. Counselling organizations with keeping in mind the principles, challenges and issues that privacy raise is a real asset for the clients. Any organization processing either as a data controller or processor in Europe, Switzerland or elsewhere feels the impact of the new developments with regard to privacy. This area has gone from a rather theoretical matter to a highly specialized topic and particular, requiring both subject matter expertise from both legal and technical perspectives. 

Many thanks to those supporting me in this adventure, and all the privacy pros and organizations out there that help and support others improving their knowledge and skills with amazing materials and blogs.

Now that we have passed 25 May 2018, the challenges are going to become a reality.

All the best and looking forward to continue exchanging on this fascinating topics.

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Gabriel Avigdor

Fines under the GDPR: How a DPA May act as of 26 May 2018

In February 2018, I shared some thoughts in an article titled: ‘3 months before the GDPR – what if you don’t comply? ‘, which intended to explain how the sanction regime under the GDPR may be applied by the data protection authorities (DPA), also indicating that fines may not be the only or preferred root for the authorities in case of non-compliance with Regulation (EU) 2016/679.

As many organizations are looking for answers on what may happen as of 25 May, here is an interesting infographic document designed by the IAPP showing that the approach to fines differs drastically from jurisdictions to jurisdictions.

And the attitude of data protection authorities is likely to have an impact on the way companies are taking the GDPR seriously or not, depending of where they are located, where they operate, offer goods and services, monitor data subjects’ behavior, in front of which data protection authority (DPA) data subjects may issue a complaint, etc.

Here are very different approaches taken from four different DPAs for the day after 25 May 2018:

  • “there will be fines, and they will be significant…” (Helen Dixon, Irish DPA);
  • make sure compliance is focused throughout the company, it is a strategic question and has to raise all levels of the company and obey to a strategic decision from the top (Isabelle Falque-Pierrotian, French DPA);
  • “Voluntary compliance is still the preferred route, but we will back that up with tough action where it’s necessary” (Elisabeth Denham, British DPA); or
  • “It’s not our first task to fine, it’s our first task to see if you’re compliant, and if you’re not compliant it will be a problem […]” (Andrea Jelinek, Austrian DPA)

These approaches are understandable if you think about what types of companies are located in which country. Many big players including the GAFAM have their data centers in Ireland and are known to have practices or services that have motivated regulators drafting the GDPR. While the French and British approaches seem to focus more on supporting compliance in a pragmatic way, the Austrian approach shows a more relaxed position, further from the Irish one. The naughty, supportive or more relaxed approach may also depend on each member States’ readiness, where a majority of them have not passed their legislative adaptation into their national laws.

You can track each national law exceptions to the GDPR country by country on this page.

Although many people are mentioning 26th of May as the date where effects of the GDPR will occur, the GDPR will apply as of 25 May 2018 (not 24 or 26). Probably 26 is mentioned as “the day after”, because it is probably unrealistic to think that any organizations will receive an audit request, or be contacted by authorities ont that famous day and it takes at least one day to send a letter… Maybe some DPAs have already prepared their letters, audit requests and joint forces for a massive GDPR assault on the data protection beach, but this would be pretty surprising.

Finally, the GDPR institutes a consistency mechanism (referenced in particular in Recitals 135, 136, 138, 150, + article 63 and following), aiming to promote cooperation and align authorities’ approches to the application of the Regulation. This mechanism shall seek, among other goals, for lead and supervisory authorities, the Board and the Commission, to work together for a consistent application of the GDPR, including “to promote a consistent application of administrative fines” (rec. 150). In the course of time, this mechanism and global cooperation with EU authorities may polish these very different approaches to fines. This being said, each country will remain free to tackle privacy issues according to its culture.

Future will tell…

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By Gabriel Avigdor | NTIC

30 days before the GDPR – not even Member States are ready

If, as an organization, you think you are alone in the dark 30 days ahead of the GDPR’s worldwide implication, don’t be afraid, you are not.

It is not surprising to read this article that reminds that not only organizations, but also a majority of Member States are not ready for the GDPR. Private and public organizations around the globe falling into the scope of the GDPR have invested many resources to prepare for compliance to Regulation 2016/679 (the ‘GDPR’), each with different approaches and priorities. The situation is similar with Member States. They have to organize their national implementation of the GDPR, decide what provisions may be a matter of national importance with regard to their specific culture and their national legal framework.

Nevertheless, not all countries are as good students as Germany, Austria, Belgium and Slovakia the only 4 countries that have passed a national law before 25 May 2018. In January 2018, Věra Jourová already pointed out that, except 2 countries (Germany and Austria), 26 countries were unprepared to the GDPR. According to the BakerMckenzie Survey 2018, dated January 2018, 20 countries have either published or planned a draft bill to their Parliament, while 5 countries (Bulgaria, Greece, Malta, Portugal and Romania) haven’t demonstrated a strong will to implement the GDPR.

[edit 20.05.2018:] On 18 may 2018, just one week before the GDPR applies, the  “EU Observer” mentioned ‘eight EU countries would not be ready for the deadline‘. According to this article, some countries are, or are expected to be, ready on time (Austria, Germany, France, Croatia, the Netherlands, Sweden and Slovakia), others will be between end of May and June (Spain, Italy, Portugal, Romania and Latvia),  while the following are not going to be:

  • Belgium;
  • Bulgaria;
  • Cyprus;
  • the Czech Republic;
  • Greece;
  • Hungary;
  • Lithuania; and
  • Slovenia.

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The GDPR: a fully harmonized
legal framework ?

The GDPR is a Regulation, which means that it has binding legal force throughout every EU Member State and enters into force on a set date in all the Member States. In the case of the GDPR, the text was approved by the European Parliament on 14 April 2016 and entered into force in 24 May 2016. The date for binding effect of this Regulation was set to 25 May 2018, two years afterwards, which is the date that a majority of people remembers.

Although the GDPR is a Regulation that applies without the need for Member States to transpose provisions locally, the content of the GDPR gives room for Member States to do some tailoring with respect to certain provisions. For a Regulation that aims to create a ‘one-stop-shop‘ mechanism for organizations active in more than one EU country, harmonize privacy in the European Union within a single market for data, creating identical rules in EU and beyond, the reality is a bit far from the goal and is not as clear as sought to be achieved, although it raises the bar of the privacy level in and outside EU.

In fact, the GDPR contains many provisions called “opening clauses“, (more than 70!!) imposing or allowing Member States to deviate from the Regulation (with stricter, less strict, or more detailed rules) and adopt exceptions. Some provisions of the GDPR impose Member States to have local provisions, such as personal data and freedom of expression or penalties, and other provisions give the opportunity to Member States to adopt or precise the text of the Regulation. These topics mainly relate to:

  • children consent;
  • employment data;
  • notification obligation relating to data breach;
  • designation of data protection officers (‘DPO’):
  • (non-) recognition of administrative fines;
  • professional secrecy;
  • scientific, historical or statistical purposes;
  • personal data of deceased persons;
  • special rules for special categories of data;
  • rules for genetic, biometric or health data;
  • national identification numbers/any other identifier of general application;
  • etc.

The opening clauses “run the risk of lowering the level of data protection“, said Christian Gemmin from the University Kassel in Germany. And it is worth noting that the famous sanction mechanism under the GDPR, that so many people are talking about, do not apply equally among Member States, both from an enforcement point of view, scope and amount.

For example, in Czech Republik, administrative fines for public authorities may be imposed only up to CZK 10 milion, (approx. EUR 358,000).  Same for Estonia, the Estonian law does not recognize the concept of administrative fines and thus such fines cannot be imposed in the way as set out in GDPR, but through its Data Protection Authority (‘DPA’). For Ireland, public authorities and public bodies will not be liable to administrative fines for breach of the GDPR, except where they are acting as an ‘undertaking’! In January, only Germany and Austria were fully in compliance with the GDPR.

On this website, you can find a very useful document, keeping up to date, compiling an overview of the topics that each EU Member State is implementing in its local law.

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What does it mean generally for countries that are not ready?

  1. everyone is late, including companies, a majority of Member States and data protection authorities (DPAs). And this is just a practical a reality.
  2. it creates legal uncertainty / insecurity for organizations processing personal data in those countries and or targeting consumers in these countries. These organizations cannot fully prepare to the GDPR until national laws are properly implemented into the national legal framework.
  3. it creates legal insecurity for data subjects. National proceedings may need adjustments to allow data subjects to exerce their rights and to enable enforcement under the GDPR. If not properly adjusted, data subjects would not be able to exerce their rights properly.
  4. this could “slow down the take-off of the harmonious application and the coherent application of the data protection rules throughout the EU” (as explained in this article).
  5. the EU Commission could file a lawsuit Member States that are unprepared (at this stage, all except Germany, Austria, Belgium and Slovakia) to pressure them on that topic, said Věra Jourová in January
  6. without synchronization of their readiness, member States may undermine the consistency mechanism (‘one-stop-shop’) as outlined in article 63 of the GDPR, as is requires cooperation between them to ensure proper application of the Regulation (see an opinion on this here).

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How to keep track of the changes for each Member States?

Some firms have performed the time consuming task to monitor and compile status of the GDPR implementation in the national laws of each EU Member States. Here are just a few, which I found useful and interesting:

  • Latham and Watkins: they put together a document and a free tracker available online here, which has the advantage to appears in one window. Honestly, this tool is just brilliant.
  • Bird&Bird: they have developed a GDPR tracking page relating to the developments and status of GDPR implementation in national laws country by country.
  • ReedSmith: in this article you can find a chart outlining current and pending changes within national laws and a list of legislative progress country by country.
  • Nymity Inc.: the well-known EU company that helps organizations with privacy tools, software, services and framework has developed and offers access to a tracking tool, which doesn’t appear to be free.
  • Nice Irish blog from Prof. Eoin O’Dell: updated on 25 April 2018, where you also find status of the countries and other links.

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Article by Gabriel Avigdor | Ntic.ch

GDPR compliance: what if you don’t comply as of 25 May 2018

GDPR COMPLIANCE has been the very hot topic of 2017 and will continue to grow in the next couple of months, as we are reaching 25 May 2018, the famous date where Regulation (EU) 2016/679 will apply to any controller and processor around the world falling into the scope of the Regulation. This topic will increase in importance with general awareness, the importance to “think privacy first” before any processing personal data occurs, and the increasing number privacy pros arising out around the globe advocating about privacy.

In this historic race for data protection compliance, the European Commission published a new website, with extensive guidance on that matter. This site is pretty intelligible, and designed in a simplified and easily accessible manner. It covers important areas of the GDPR indicating, among others:

including an infographic section with a summary of key areas that relate to the GDPR such as rights and duties, and consequences for non-compliance.

Now processors of personal data may have to demonstrate to the authorities that, and how, they comply with the Regulation (‘accountability’ principle).

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WHAT TO EXPECT IF YOU DON’T COMPLY WITH THE GDPR?

On its new website, the Commission reminds the 4 steps process before a supervisory authority may impose an administrative fine (art. 83 of the GDPR) on businesses or organizations for non-compliance. These steps are:

(1) WARNING ⇨ (2) REPRIMAND ⇨ (3) SUSPENSION OF DATA PROCESSING ⇨ (4) FINES

and according to the Regulation, sanctions shall “in each individual case be effective, proportionate and dissuasive ” (art. 83 § 1 GDPR). Therefore, the fine regime allows a supervisory authority to impose a fine in addition to other measures, being (among others):

  • warnings (art. 58 (2) (a) and recital 150 of the GDPR);
  • withdrawal of certifications (art. 58 (2) (h) of the GDPR); or
  • suspension of data flows (art. 58 (2) (j) and 83 (5) (e) of the GDPR).

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WHAT DOES ARTICLE 29 WP SAY ABOUT FINES UNDER THE GDPR?

The Article 29 Working Party (‘A29WP’) just updated its 253rd document called “Guidelines on the application and setting of administrative fines for the purposes of the Regulation 2016/679” (wp253). This document contains more details on the fine regime and how controller should behave to avoid fines.

The guidelines explains that warnings may already be given to controllers when processing operations are likely to infringe provisions of the Regulation. This means that warnings may be used as a preventive measure against a potential infringement (foot note, page 5 of wp253). Reprimand can, in some cases, replace a fine (page 9 of the guidelines), etc. In addition to this, the A29WP adds an interesting statement about the balance between imposing corrective measures with or without fines:

“Fines are an important tool that supervisory authorities should use in appropriate circumstances. The supervisory authorities are encouraged to use a considered and balanced approach in their use of corrective measures, in order to achieve both an effective and dissuasive as well as a proportionate reaction to the breach. The point is to not qualify the fines as last resort, nor to shy away from issuing fines, but on the other hand not to use them in such a way which would devalue their effectiveness as a tool“.

The message is pretty clear, the supervisory authority shall ensure effectiveness through finding the right balance between fines, or measures, or both. Still, fines should not be “devalued” meaning, that a too nice fine may encourage controllers and processors to continue doing business without ensuring compliance.

You can access the guidelines on administrative fines here.

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AUTHORITIES WILL NOT FINE EVERYONE AS OF 25 MAY 2018

It has become popular to hear and read from many people and consulting firms coming out of nowhere, shouting on social media and the internet, that the end of the world is going to happen in May 2018, should you be non-compliant. The reality is a bit more complex, and such statement isn’t true. It is true that after 25 May, there will be no more deadline for GDPR readiness, so sanctions may potentially be quite heavy when a controller is being audited, questionned by an authority or if an individual lodges a complaint against the controller. But this may only happen after the authority performs an assessment of the situation, starting with exchanges of communications, then maybe an audit if a data subject submitting a complaint for an infringement of their rights, or if one claims a the controller is breaching the law. You’d better be working on your GPDR readiness if you are subject to the Regulation and haven’t started yet. But it seems necessary to remind some basic considerations that are a bit less scaremongering on the sanction regime and compliance readiness, just to name a few:

  • Fines are not going to rain on data controllers as of 26 May 2018. This is a myth designed by hungry newly created consulting firms using fear as a marketing tool to sell their GDPR-related services. mid- to large organisations that are aware do not get trapped, but smaller may.
  • An authority will not issue a fine before having found evidence and probably warned the processor of personal data (controllers and to some extent processors) that there is, in their opinion, a breach of the law. It means that the process would require to conduct investigations , including audit of, or by, the controller, its retailers, suppliers or business partners, but also interpreting the GDPR, which is not easy.
  • According to UK ICO Steve Eckersley, “some investigations take 8-12 months to complete”. So it wil take some time. Taking the example of the UK, Steve Eckerley also mentions that “the ICO is now recruiting an additional 100-150 people to work on GDPR aspects and cyber security” predicting that the ICO will receive “30,000 breach notifications a year“. This is not a meaningless number.
  • Authorities are, and will remain, very busy to create their own team, support controllers in providing them guidance and support, help them interpreting the Regulation, implement exceptions to the GDPR into their own local laws (if they chose to do so), examine how to deal with breach notifications, work on DPIA submissions, etc. So the top priority is not to sanction everyone, but more to get ready for having the right staff to support this massive change in the regulatory landscape. GDPR may be a huge project not only for those who process personal data, but every stakeholders, including authorities pressured by the Commission for their own readiness. Being busy, does not mean that no sanction will occur. My sense is that there will be sanctions, but not immediately as everyone will be in a rush.
  • Regulation (UE) 2016/679 does not indicate fines as the first, nor the last measure if failing to comply with the law. In theory, a supervisory authority would warn the controller before a infringement of the law, where it is likely to occur. When a GDPR audit will occur in less clear cases, there will be room for dialogue and exchanges between authorities, legal counsels, appointed DPOs, outside counsels, data processors and other players of this privacy eco-system. It will also be interesting to see if the level of complaints issued by individuals will increase in the future, or if GDPR compliance will build more trust. Some people tend to forget that the GDPR is a formidable opportunity for organizations to advertise their good behavior and willingness to listen to the clients’ needs and respect their rights.
  • Compliance shall be maintained and monitored over time. GDPR compliance is not a one-shot project. It becomes a new behavior for companies vis-à-vis their clients and their business partners and it has to be included in the organisation’s processes. This will continue for as long as the Regulation remains in force, which means that a fine may occur much later. Your organization may be GDPR ready for 25 May 2018, but might not be any more if compliance is not maintained over time.
  • (edit) More than 70 provisions of the GDPR offer room for EU Member States to deviate from the Regulation. This means knowing the GDPR as a general law is not sufficient, and there will be different approaches depending on the countries. Germany being the first country to adopt its own adaptation of the GDPR in its local data protection law. You can access links on another article of this blog to track Member States’ readiness and deviations from the GDPR. As all the provisions of the Regulation are not self-explanatory and contain many provisons subject to interpretation, compliance with the GDPR remains a case-by-case assessment and will be subject to interpretation. As mentioned in this article, it could take around 10 years “before the GDPR might be considered a mature piece of legislation that is well understood“.

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OTHER THREATS AND RISKS THAN FINES

Data processors of personal data (controllers and processors) should not only fear fines. A fine may just constitute an additional bad taste to an already too salted menu.

Personal data processors should take into consideration other risks or threats to their business as a result of GDPR non-compliance than just fines. Here are just a few examples that demonstrate how non-compliance may impact your organization and potentially your business as a whole:

  • reputational damage, financial and customer losses after an incident. Notifications of cybersecurity incidents to the individuals, when a breach is “likely to result in a likely to result in a high risk to the rights and freedoms of natural persons” (art. 34 (1) GDPR), reputational dammage causing loss of business opportunities, loss of customers, potential contractual liabilities, breach of contract, (just to name a few), may be much more damaging than a fine. If you read the news, you probably heard about the Talk-Talk disaster, where the unprepared spokesperson of Talk-Talk gave the worst signal ever to their customers when making a public statement about a data breach incident.
  • business discontinuity and costs recovery due to an incident. Not only a cybersecurity incident may cause the organization to stop being able to conduct its regular business and have reputational consequences on the market, but it will require to spend a lot of money to conduct investigations, fixing the issue, changing the processes where necessary, put in place stronger measures to prevent further incident, etc. A cybersecurity incident does not mean you are in breach of the GDPR, but with the increasing amount of personal data processed through connected networks, it is likely that a breach will also concern personal data of natural persons, which is regulated by the GDPR. This is where putting in place appropriate technical and organizational measures (which I call “ATOM“) plays a crucial role. In the most optimistic scenario, a well equiped and prepared company may not even require to inform the authorities, nor the individuals. In any case, it remains crucial to discuss and implement a cybersecurity preparedness plan and an incident response plan with the relevant people on a senior level.
  • suspension of data flows. While a cybersecurity incident may cause business discontinuity for a relative short period of time, an authority may impose a suspension of data flows. Despite the practical aspects of how an authority may enforce such measure, this might be damaging to the company if there is a business need to process the personal data.
  • competitors taking market share. This is a fear that some organizations should think about if they think non-compliance with EU privacy laws are just an academical topic. This is also where the GDPR is a great opportunity.
  • long-term ability to do business affected. Suspension of data flows may not be a common sanction given by an authority. However, non-compliance may prevent organizations to continue doing business with EU clients and cease to be competitive, losing market share.
  • loss of customer confidence.
  • staff losses and senior executive resignations.
  • allocation of an extra budget on security, data protection, restructuring, new roles and internal audits.
  • etc.

While NOT all organizations around the world falling into the scope of the GDPR will become GDPR compliant as of 25 May 2018, businesses and organizations processing personal data creating particular risks for the data subjects will be in the focus of the authorities. The so-called “Lex Facebook” will motivate authorities to focus on large companies such as the GAFAM and BATX, but also on their providers.

As long as your organization can demonstrate that GDPR readiness is on the top list of priorities and that working hard to achieve full compliance, you may be on the road to safety.

Be prepared, but not scared. Make the GDPR an opportunity, not a blocking point. Don’t fear fines, collaborate, remain transparent, prepare to demonstrate that you are working on compliance and that it is a priority for you. And if you need advice, then hire a specialized law firm.

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By Gabriel Avigdor | NTIC.ch

Abilify connected pill: ethics and privacy aspects of Personal Health Monitoring

ABILIFY MYCITE: A FIRST FDA APPROVAL FOR mHEALTH AND CONNECTED MEDICAL DEVICES

On 13 November 2017, we have probably reached a historical new step in digital health (and mHealth) with this market approval from the FDA for “Abilify MyCite“, the first digital tracking-pill which sends data to your doctor. This connected pill is used to track whether patients sufferring from schizophrenia, bipolar I disorder, and depression have taken their medication, which is used for Personal Health Monitoring (‘PHM‘).

As mentionned by Pharmacytimes:

“the approval of the pill and the sensor together represents a first for the FDA“

even if the sensor itself that is used along with aripiprazole (substance used for patient suffering from schizophrenia) was first cleared for use by the FDA in 2012. As secondary or side effects, the clinical trials revealed adverse events such as nausea, vomiting, constipation, headache, dizziness, uncontrollable limb and body movements (akathisia), anxiety, insomnia, and restlessness. However, the common adverse events associated with the sensor were related to the patch, and were predominantly skin irritation.

Find more information on the website of the FDA.

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TECHNOLOGY AND FUNCTIONALITIES – How it works

On the technology side, the sensor embedded into the Ability MyCite pill syncs with a smartphone and sends an alert to the patient’s smartphone. The doctor receives also a notification through the App when the medication is ingested via a patch that is worn on the surface of the skin of the patient. If the patient shares its data with his practitioner, the latter has the ability to monitor whether the patient has ingested properly. According to the US TV channel PBS, researchers are also trying to manufacture ePills that collect and process other body-related data by monitoring internal heat of the body for several days long.

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TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE DEVICE

According to LiveScience, the technical aspects are as follows:

“It’s a partial power source, “the patient becomes the battery”. The pill integrates a silicon chip with a logic circuit and contains copper and magnesium.  The chip’s logic circuit makes a small modulated current — a graph of the current levels would look like a sine wave. Since the human body is conductive, the wearable sensor can pick up the changes. The modulated current can encode ones and zeroes, similar to an FM signal. “It works in a similar way as an EKG,” or electrocardiogram. These machines pick up on changes in electrical current in the body to monitor heartbeats. The wearable sensor does the same thing, though the current is smaller.” The pill is designed to work for only about 3 minutes. That’s just enough time for it to send a signal to the wearable sensor that it should wake up and start gathering data. That saves battery power and allows the wearable sensor to work for a week at a time.

The patch and sensor is manufactured by the company Proteus Digital Health and aripiprazole marketed by Otsuka Pharmaceutical.

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ETHICS AND LEGAL ISSUES

PATIENT MONITORING AND REDUCING HEALTH COSTS

Personal Health Monitoring (‘PHM ‘) contains at least two major advantages.

MEDICAL COMPLIANCE – being the “consistency and accuracy with which someone follows the regimen prescribed by a physician or other health professional“. In the context of mental disability, the physician must ensure that the patient suffering from a mental disorder takes the prescribed medication on a regular basis. This may be particularly interesting for patients who may find themselves incapable of making a proper judgement (such as elder people). In the USA, a study from the National center for biotechnology information showed that “an estimated 50% of those who respond well to medications are nonadherent to their treatment regime“. Therefore, medical compliance is also a important challenge for patients who are suffering from a mental illness; and

HEALTHCARE COSTS – which could be reduced if more patients would take their pill properly. Consequences are both medical and financial. When a patient do not or, forgets to, take a pill, or do not follow the treatment as prescribed, his/her health may be worsened and this person may require treatment adjustment, more medicine, another hospitalisation or even a further surgery should there be a need to. In particular, this article indicates that the “loss that the taxpayer incurs when patients fail to take their medication, the cost of which is assumed to be at least $100 billion. According to an American report, these numbers could even be between $100 et $300 billion.

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TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT: YES.  BUT AT WHAT COST AND
TO WHAT EXTENT DOES THIS REMAIN A PROGRESS?

Although such technological advancement (connected pill to track patient’s medical compliance) is remarkable for healthcare costs reduction, not everybody agrees to it, especially within the medical profession. Moreover, it is legitimate to ask to what extent such technology can constitute a practical improvement, not just a scientific progress.

What value does this progress add for patients, the healthcare system and the society in general? What does it improve, is it better than before? If yes, how and what are the bad sides of it? What is the balance between the bad and good sides of this? Will the benefits for the patient override financial benefits?

Some people already rose their voice and expressed reluctance to Personal Health Monitoring (‘PHM’), which scientists have already looked into and published on this complex topic. (see additional notes on that topic at the end of this article).

Altough a few have called this practice “medical Big Brother (or biomedical Big Brother according to the New York Times), PHM raises a number of ethical questions, which can lead to at least 8 key  points and interrogations:

1. Privacy – for personal health monitoring, two types of privacy aspects can emerge, which are personal privacy and data privacy. This also relates to risk of interference in the private life of the patient by collecting and processing health (sensitive or even biometric) patient data. Is such data processing in compliance with explicit consent of the patient, who may not able to make a proper judgement?  This article describes very well some privacy aspects  that personal health monitoring are raising.

2. Visibility or  obstrusiveness – Visibility appears to refer to “the degree to which a PHM device is noticeable by the user and other individuals, both at home and in public“. In accepting the use of tracking devices for dementia patients, cognitively intact older adults identified ease of use, size and weight as important in accepting a tracking technology. One consider the patient differently, being seen as an ill human being. This may create a risk of discrimination by the society and the person might be more vulnerable;

3. (over)Medicalization – the devices have the effect of reminding the user or occupants of a medical condition in a non-medical environment. The home could be turned into a medical environment or “de facto intensive care unit” as well as creating stigmatization linked to the fact that the person feels under surveillance;

4. Social isolation – the patient monitored will reduce or cease going to the hospital or to see the physician for regular check-ups. Therefore, this could increase patient’s loneliness and social isolation with psychological and medical consequences with a lack of motivation and reduction of the mentality;

5. Autonomy – what room remains to the patient with PHM to decide how to take the pill or not? What if the patient wishes to stop taking the pill, for good reasons? Where are we talking about pressure on the patient will?

6. Shame et identity – what consequences could there be on the personality of the patient, who may be perceived by the society as marginal human being, in particular when the treatment is visible?

7. Providing healthcare – with remote care, to what extent does this improve or reduce its effectiveness, especially when the patient does not move him/herself anymore? Is this an efficient manner to treat a patient, shall this remain the exclusive way of doing it or should we combine it with physical appointments?

8. Security and reliability of the technology. This element is obviously central for both privacy and health reasons.

Do these aspects reduce or delete the patient’s responsibility or does it create an over-responsibility? With or without benefits?

How about from an insurance point of view if the patient do not takes the pill while he/she is being monitored with or without worsening of his/her health? Suspension, reduction, cessation of the payment by the insurance or the medical measures? To what extent can the insurance have access to such information or personal health-related data?

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A PRIVACY PERSPECTIVE?

As this article pointed out, despite huge costs reductions (around 100 billion) and health benefits of this mHealth technology for the healthcare system and patients, patient’s privacy is an area of concern which is even more related to medtech technologies with Big data and IoT (Internet of Things) in the healthcare sector. Combined with the patch worn by the patient, the sensors that are embedded into the pill may provide far more data about the patient than just taking a pill or not.  The device may be used in a way to gather data from the patient’s body, such as the heart rate, how much the patient sleeps, how fit the patient is, etc.

The major concern is the misuse of such sensitive data, which could be used by corporations or government to collect more personal and biometric information about citizens that they had consented to revealing. Furthermore, since the technology has only recently come into the public domain, very few regulations exist to police it, says this article. Misuse for marketing purposes, is one thing. Data breach, criminal intents, or cyberattack on the device itself are another thing with severe consequences for both patients’ health, privacy and reputations of tech and pharma organizations. Further, another study explains that it appears impossible to obtain informed consent from recipients of PHM because full understanding of the implications of using PHM cannot be gained without actually using the technology. Therefore, using the technology without informed consent, may be considered as illegal processing, which creates a vicious circle. This article suggests that piloting methods such as storytelling and prototyping may present a possible solution to this problem and avoid collecting personal data without the proper legal basis for processing.

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PRIVACY AND INFORMATION SECURITY 

From an EU and Swiss perspective, health-related data (health or biometric) is considered as a special category of personal data that we call “sensitive data“, where the processing is generally prohibited, unless the controller can demonstrate a legal ground for the processing, such as the patient’s explicit consent (art. 9 §2 (a) GDPR, art. 4 al. 5 and 13 al. 1 of the Swiss DPA), the provision of medical services by a health professional tied by a secrecy obligation (art. 9 §2 (h) and 9 §3 of the GDPR) or private overriding interests (art. 13 al. 2 of the Swiss DPA). As one can read in the press almost everyday now, cyberattacks can happen, and a data breach may lead authorities to impose hefty fines, with 4% of worldwide annual turnover according to article 83 of the GDPR, although fines should remain a last resort in the sanction mechanism applied by the authorities. I wrote a note in this article about the envisaged approach with fines and sanction pursuant to the GDPR.

In addition, the doctor would also have to require the patient’s prior explicit consent before sharing, or allowing any third party to access, any sensitive data . See my previous note on recommendations for outsourcing in the context of medical billing for healthcare professionnals.

There are many other obligations under these regulations, which this article does not intend to cover.

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CONCLUSION

This FDA approval sounds like a very good “signal” to pharmaceutical companies developing connected drugs and advanced digital life science technologies, mHealth and medical devices.  This can improve the life of many patients, while saving costs and improving efficiencies in the treatment.

There is no need for scaremongering. However, remaining careful using the device for the purpose of the treatment, informing the patient and gathering explicit consent, processing only the data that is necessary for the purpose of the treatment, working with ethics and respect for the individual, especially if these patients have a reduced of discernment, are some good steps to ensure the individual’s privacy.

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To read more on this topic:

  • Mittelstadt, Brent, Ben Fairweather, Mark Shaw and Neil McBride. “The Ethical Implications of Personal Health Monitoring.” IJT 5.2 (2014): 37-60.Web.4Feb.2018.doi:10.4018/ijt.2014070104.
  • Mittelstadt, B., Fairweather, N.B., McBride, N., Shaw, M., 2011. Ethical Issues of Personal Health Monitoring: A Literature Review, in: ETHICOMP 2011 Conference Proceedings, ETHICOMP 2011, Sheffield, UK.
  • Elin Palm, Anders Nordgren, Marcel Verweij and Göran Collste, Ethically Sound Technology? Guidelines for Interactive Ethical Assessment of Personal Health Monitoring, 2013, Interdisciplinary Assessment of Personal Health Monitoring, 105-114.
  • Nordgren, Anders. (2013). Privacy by Design in Personal Health Monitoring. Health care analysis : HCA : journal of health philosophy and policy. 23. . 10.1007/s10728-013-0262-3.
  • Data protection and privacy in connected health, an article from a blog for research and innovation relating to emerging technologies.
  • Information notice  from “Otsuka Pharmaceutical”, the manufacturer of Abilify Mycite.

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By Gabriel Avigdor | NTIC.ch

Outsourcing medical billing: a matter of transparency

What is required when outsourcing medical invoices to a third party?

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In healthcare, it is frequent for medical professionals and health institutions to outsource medical billing to a third party. There are many financial and practical advantages to subcontract such service. First, outsourcing can increase efficiency, by reducing the cost of performing these kinds of tasks by the employees. Therefore, it saves work spaces and it is cost-effective, as the service is provided by experts within a company specialized in this area. Second, the responsibility and the costs for investing in this service, the employees’ management, staff training and keeping these skills up to date, are borne by the third party. Finally, one can expect regular reporting services and cooperation from the third party as part of the deal.

Where outsourcing contains many advantages, medical billing must comply with legal obligations, in particular with medical secrecy and data protection regulations, especially if the third party wishes to use the data for another purpose than medical billing. This would be the case if the personal health-related data are used for the supplier’s benefit (such as creating its own creditors and debtors database), or for the benefit of third parties (e.g.: selling the data to insurance companies).

Transferring health data of patients to a third party can infringe medical secrecy and data protection regulations. If the data are not used for the same purpose as for medical invoicing, the Swiss Criminal code (art. 321), the Swiss Federal Data Protection Act (DPA), and cantonal laws protect the medical secrecy by prohibiting undue disclosure without express consent of the patient.

Infringements observed by the Swiss Federal Commissioner

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The Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (FDPIC) recently osbserved that third parties specialized in medical billing are using health data of patients to:

  • create their own database with individual’s solvency to categorize them; and
  • sell the data to third parties (such as health insurances).

According the FDPIC, healthcare professionals must reinforce their obligation to comply with transparency, which he states as follows:

“Where healthcare professionals outsource medical billing services to third parties, they shall remain precise and draw attention of the individuals in a clear manner to where and to whom the data would be transferred, and for what purpose the supplier may process such data. This includes in particular using such health-related data to create unrelated databases and potential sales to third parties. In order to comply with this obligation, the healthcare professionals must get the individuals’ express consent“.

Medical secrecy and explicit consent

From a legal perspective, medical personal data – meaning health-related data from an identified or an identifiable individual – are sensitive data. This special category of personal data requires to get the patient’s explicit consent before the processing (art. 4 § 5 DPA), in writing , and before a transfer to a third party for another purpose than for medical invoicing. Therefore, it would be illegal to transfer and use of such data for another purpose without a valid written consent.

This practice complies with both art. 321 of the Swiss Criminal code and art. 10a § 1 let. b of the DPA to the extent the owner of the secret has released the health professional from the medical secrecy.

How do I draft my privacy clause in an outsourcing contract?

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Among the other contract clauses which are specific to the outsourcing agreement, the contract should at least contain the following:

For outsourcing in Switzerland:

  • a reference to the relevant DPA provisions;
  • a warranty from the billing company to comply with the DPA provisions;
  • a warranty of fulfilment of data protection claims of data subjects;
  • the prior consent of the data controller (health professionals) if the data processor decides to subcontract the service;
  • describe the purpose for the processing of the data;
  • an obligation for the employees, auxiliary personnel, freelancers etc. of the processor to comply with the DPA provisions;
  • an obligation for the data processor to comply with data security obligations;

For cross-border transfers to the third party:

  • If permitted by national law to transfer to a third party based in another country, include a provision to regulate cross-border transfers. If personal data are processed (accessed or transferred) in a country without a sufficient protection level for the processing, the data protection clause shall at least include:
    • an obligation to enter into standard contractual clauses, such as the C2P EU model clauses (or privacy shield, or Swiss transborder data flow agreement);
    • an obligation for the data processor to enter into such standard model clauses with its affiliates located in countries without an adequate protection level;
    • an obligation or the data processor to inform the data controller prior the transfer if the data are being subcontracted, including a right to object, and provide information to the controller about the subprocessors (identity, location) and engage the subprocessor with a contract containing the same level of contractual obligations.
  • For the Swiss Federal commissioner, Swiss Doctor should not allow a third party outside Switzerland to access medical records. If so, the Doctor may infringe medical secrecy which is protected by the Swiss Criminal code and by the DPA.

Practical recommendations

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According to the FDPIC, it is not sufficient to inform the patient of such processing somewhere in the medical office, or a waiting room. Nor would it be sufficient to add a clause in small letters in a medical consent form. To comply with transparency, the patient shall receive a proper information to allow – or not – the processing on the basis of a written consent. The patient shall do this without any pressure of any kind.

This short note of the FDPIC reinforces the principle of transparency of the processing.

For the patients

This memo is a call for reinforcement of transparency in the healthcare sector. It explains that more supervision will occur in the future in that particular area to protect the individuals’ right to privacy, and from an undue processing when third parties wish to use the data for their own benefit.

As consent is required, the patient may withdraw its consent at any time. In such event, healthcare professionals and any third party using the data will have to stop using them and potentially delete them to comply with the patient’s request.

For healthcare professionals and hospitals

The principle of transparency, which comes from privacy regulations is not new. It is protected by the non-disclosure obligation for healthcare professionals relating to medical secrecy. But even with the consent to disclose medical information, privacy regulations do not allow anyone to use any personal data for whatever purpose. It would be a breach of the DPA and the processing would become illegal.

In practice, doctors and hospitals shall duly inform the patient to allow him/her to validly consent to sharing medical information for other purposes than for medical billing.

The service provider being a data processor, it has to comply with all the data controller (doctors and healthcare professionals) instructions and requirements, and is responsible for the processing, and to comply with the DPA.

To remain cautious, heathcare professionals should ensure that:

with regard to the service provider:

  • it does not use the data for other purposes than for medical billing;
  • it will comply with privacy regulations, as well as medical secrecy, as the service provider is not bound by medical secrecy;
  • include a paragraph for get the data back at any time, at no costs;
  • for cloud computing purposes, use only service providers based in Switzerland, and draft a contractual clause to prohibit any transfer of such data to a subcontractor or a third party outside Switzerland

with regard to the patient:

  • update the consent forms and add a clear clause – separated from medical related acts – to draw the patient’s attention that the processing may be done for other purposes than medical being (and explain which ones);
  • if the data may be used for other purposes than for medical billing:
    • get the consent after having duly informed the patient and before to process the data; or
    • inform the patient of such transfer in order for the patient to give or withdraw its consent on the processing.

For service providers

The Commissioner has not given its opinion on the supplier’s civil responsibility towards the patient for undue processing, or medical secrecy infringement, or both.

In order to protect the service provider for using the data for other purposes than medical billing, it may perform the following:

  • anonymize the data, whichever it will use the data for its own use or to sell the data to third parties. In this case, medical secrecy and privacy laws will not apply;
  • clarify with healthcare professionals for what other purposes it wishes to use the data;
  • request healthcare professionals to ensure, in the outsourcing agreement, that the patient has been informed of the processing validly given its consent to the processing;
  • include a specific exclusion of liability in case of a third party claim (for medical secrecy of privacy infringement);
  • add an indemnification clause for losses it may incur as a result of the breach of privacy laws or medical secrecy.

To go further, see the following notes on the website of the Swiss Federal Commissioner:

  • This note in French, German or Italian on outsourcing in the context of healthcare
  • This note in French, German or Italian on the use of service providers for keeping medical records in the cloud
  • This note in French, German or Italian on security in medical offices
  • Guide on processing of personal data in the context of healthcare

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Gabriel Avigdor | NTIC.ch

Gabriel Avigdor, avocat PME magazine

Lawyers 4.0: the new generation of tech lawyers

Swiss Technology lawyers 4.0

A new generation of Swiss technology lawyers has arrived to answer the challenges which faces the society in this 4th industrial revolution”, says the Swiss local journal “PME Magazine”.

This article dated 28 June 2017 provides a nice presentation of the new generation of geek lawyers which are specialized in the field of technology. I am very honoured and proud to be part of this article, which draws a nice picture, together with my three colleagues: Nicolas Capt, Sylvain Metille and François Charlet.

You can access the full version of this article here in French. Alternatively, you can access the online version here.

Have a nice reading.